Individuals randomly assigned to the comparison group did not receive any SWIM services and were not subject to SWIM requirements but could enroll in community education and training programs on their own. Starting in July 1988, individuals in the comparison group became subject to the GAIN program, which replaced SWIM but was largely similar.
The SWIM program cost about $920 (in 1986 dollars) per single-parent program participant and $840 per two-parent program participant.
A cost-benefit analysis for a five-year follow-up period examined costs and benefits to the participant, the government, taxpayers, and society:
- The participant. The SWIM program resulted in a gain of $126 (1986 dollars) to the single-parent program participant and a loss of $593 to the two-parent program participant; this means that the sum of participant earnings, fringe benefits, and wraparound services was estimated to be $126 higher (or $593 lower) than the sum of participants’ tax payments and lost benefits.
- The government. The SWIM single-parent program resulted in a gain of $1,234 to the government, and the two-parent program resulted in a gain of $1,188; this means that the sum of tax revenues and benefit savings was estimated to be $1,234 (or $1,188) higher than the sum of the costs of operating the SWIM program, wraparound services, and community education and training programs. The government saved $2.34 for every dollar spent on the single-parent SWIM program group and $2.41 for every dollar spent on the two-parent SWIM program group.
- Taxpayers. SWIM resulted in a gain to taxpayers (that is, taxpayers other than SWIM program participants) of $1,260 in the single-parent program and $1,365 in the two-parent program; this means that the sum of output produced by participants from unpaid and paid employment, tax revenues, and benefit savings was $1,260 (or $1,365) higher than the cost of participant earnings and fringe benefits, SWIM operation costs, wraparound services, and community education and training programs.
- Society. Society, including taxpayers and SWIM participants, gained $1,386 from the single-parent SWIM program and $772 from the two-parent program; this means that the sum of output produced by participants from unpaid and paid employment and administrative costs of benefit programs was $1,386 (or $722) higher than the cost of SWIM operating costs and community education and training programs.
SWIM provided services from July 1985 to September 1987. Random assignment occurred between July 1985 and June 1986. The study measured impacts for five years after study enrollment.
SWIM was a three-stage sequence of employment and training activities that supported participants’ job search, provided unpaid work experience, and included referrals to education and training.
SWIM’s stages included the following:
- Stage One. Participants were first assigned to a job search workshop for two weeks. Workshops were available in English and Spanish and included sessions on writing resumes, identifying potential jobs, and preparing for interviews. During the second week, English-speaking participants called prospective employers, and Spanish-speaking participants made in-person contact with prospective employers.
- Stage Two. Participants unemployed at the end of Stage One received unpaid work assignments through the Community Work Experience Program (CWEP) for 20 to 30 hours per week for 3 months. Participants were also required to attend a job club every other week.
- Stage Three. Participants unemployed at the end of Stage Two were referred to community-based education and training programs. Acceptable education and training activities included basic education, college courses, and vocational training courses.
If participants did not comply with the intervention activities, SWIM partially and temporarily sanctioned their AFDC grant.
During the study follow-up period, California implemented a statewide, mandatory Job Opportunities and Basic Skills Training program called Greater Avenues for Independence (GAIN). GAIN services replaced SWIM services. GAIN was similar to SWIM but emphasized education and training during AFDC participation instead of after other employment activities. Intervention group participants became eligible for GAIN in October 1987, and comparison group participants became eligible for GAIN in July 1988.
The study did not discuss any tools to measure fidelity to the intervention model.
The California State Department of Social Services and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services funded the intervention.
The intervention took place in two urban AFDC offices in San Diego County, CA. The local labor market was strong during the intervention implementation, which the study reported might have contributed to SWIM participants’ success in obtaining unsubsidized employment. San Diego County had a large network of education and training facilities, which was an asset when SWIM referred participants to education and training activities.
Two urban AFDC offices in San Diego County, CA, implemented the SWIM intervention.
The CWEP facilitated Stage Two unpaid work assignments.
The San Diego Community College system and other local providers provided education and training activities in Stage Three.
SWIM served heads of household applying for or receiving AFDC who were from two-parent families or from single-parent families with children older than age 6; participation was mandatory. AFDC recipients were excused from the sequence of SWIM activities if they were employed or in a qualifying education and training activity at least 20 hours per week or if they were an undocumented parent of a U.S. citizen.
Among the heads of households in single-parent families, more than half (56 percent) had a high school diploma. Forty-two percent were Black, not Hispanic; 27 percent were White, not Hispanic; 26 percent were Hispanic or Latino of any race; and 5 percent were Asian or another ethnicity. Most of the heads of households in single-parent families were female.
Among the heads of households in two-parent families, 47 percent had a high school diploma. Forty percent were Hispanic or Latino of any race; 26 percent were White, not Hispanic; 21 percent were Black, not Hispanic; and 13 percent were Asian or another ethnicity. Most of the heads of households in two-parent families were male.
Seventy percent of the single-parent and two-parent family intervention groups participated in an intervention activity between July 1985 and June 1988.
Stage One job search workshops lasted for 2 weeks or 10 days. Fifty-four percent of participants from the single-parent family intervention group and 60 percent of participants from the two-parent family intervention group participated in job search workshops between July 1985 and June 1988. Of those who participated, more than 75 percent attended all 10 days of the workshops.
Stage Two job clubs occurred every other week for three months, and participants attended four clubs, on average. Participants assigned to 3 months of unpaid work experience worked about 25 full-time days, on average. Twenty-one percent of the single-parent and two-parent family intervention groups participated in unpaid work experience between July 1985 and June 1988.
In Stage Three, between 30 and 40 percent of families in the intervention group participated in education or training activities and enrolled for an average of about 200 days between July 1985 and June 1988.
The study authors did not include information on the number of staff or their training, degrees, or certifications.