Glossary

People who are ages 25 to 49.

AFDC, the predecessor to TANF, was a federal assistance program in effect from 1935 to 1996 that provided financial assistance to families with children and no or low incomes. States set their own benefit levels, established (within federal limitations) standards for eligibility based on income and resources, and administered the program with federal and state funding. During the 1990s, many states received waivers of the federal requirements from the federal government to experiment with changes to the eligibility requirements and benefits.

Structured on-the-job training consisting of three primary elements: (1) mentorship from a professional in the field; (2) participation in pre-determined hours of classroom instruction in addition to on-the-job training; and (3) culmination in an industry-recognized credential. Apprenticeships may be federally registered or non-registered. Apprenticeships may be an intervention's primary service.

People who graduated from high school or passed a high school equivalency exam such as the General Educational Development test (GED) or high school equivalency test (HiSET). 

After individuals in a study are randomly assigned to the group receiving the intervention (the intervention group) or the group not receiving the intervention (the comparison group), they might drop out of an intervention or the study team might lose contact with them. This means information about how they fare over time is no longer available for use in the in the study. This dropping out is called attrition. The proportion of people who drop out of a study is called the attrition rate. There are two different types of attrition that matter when deciding whether a study’s findings can be considered reliable. The first is overall attrition, which captures the total number of individuals missing from the original sample. The second is differential attrition which captures the difference between the percentage of individuals missing from the intervention group and the percentage missing from the comparison group. When either the overall attrition or the differential attrition is too high, the study results might not accurately capture the effects of the intervention. We use scientific standards to determine when either of these types of attrition is too high for a study’s findings to be considered reliable.

A study’s ability to demonstrate that the group receiving the intervention (the intervention group) and the group not receiving the intervention (the comparison group) are similar to each other before the intervention begins is a key factor for determining the reliability of a study’s findings. Demonstrating that the two groups are similar according to important characteristics (such as race, ethnicity, gender, and time out of work) is called demonstrating baseline equivalence. We assess studies for how well they capture these kinds of characteristics about members of each group at baseline (that is, before intervention group members received intervention services) and how well they are able to show that the groups are largely similar across these key characteristics.

Adult Basic Education (ABE), high school equivalency preparation (for the General Educational Development [GED] or high school equivalency test [HiSET]), or pre-college education courses designed for those not currently enrolled in school who need assistance obtaining basic skills in mathematics, reading, and writing. These can include developmental education courses for students preparing for postsecondary coursework. Basic skills/bridge programs may be an intervention's primary service.

Provision of direct, ongoing support to program participants before, during, and/or after employment or training. Case management may involve assessing participants’ needs, connecting participants to services (including public benefits), coordination of service referrals, helping participants meet program requirements, and providing personalized, sustained assistance. Case management may be an intervention's primary service.

People served by public benefits programs or initiatives that provide a direct payment of cash, including TANF.

Payments designed to provide participants with an income or strategies to help participants retain their income. Cash/Income Supports may be an intervention's primary service.

Child support provides monetary payments made by a non-custodial parent to the custodial parent to supplement the financial costs of raising the child. Child support assistance may include supporting custodial parents with applying for child support; providing education about child support to noncustodial parents; working with the child support program or the custodial parent to modify child support orders; providing assistance to consolidate petitions on multiple child support cases; and/or helping to reduce penalties for arrears. Child support assistance may be an intervention's primary service.

Direct program assistance, including Head Start and Early Head Start programs or other early childhood programs, as well as cash or vouchers that assist in the education or care of children (e.g., childcare vouchers provided by TANF). Childcare and/or early education may be an intervention's primary service.

A group with characteristics similar to those of intervention group members, except that those in the comparison group do not have an opportunity to receive the services of interest. The comparison group is intended to represent what would have happened to members of the intervention group if they had not been offered the services from the intervention of interest.

A factor that might affect how well an intervention works and that applies differently to the intervention and comparison groups. Because this factor can affect one group and not the other, the presence of a confounding factor causes us to question a study’s findings. One type of confounding factor is an element external to the intervention that reaches only the members of one study group—for instance, if all members of the intervention group lived in one state and all members of the comparison group lived in another state. In this case, it would be impossible to separate the effect of the program or policy from that of local economic conditions.

Reduction in the percentage of people receiving public benefits or the value of their benefits between 18 months and 5 years after participants are offered intervention services.

Reduction in the percentage of people receiving public benefits (such as TANF, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, and so on) or the value of their benefits during a period 18 months or fewer after the participant first received intervention services.

Reduction in the percentage of people receiving public benefits or the value of their benefits more than 5 years after participants are offered intervention services.

Interventions that, to date, have no available research findings regarding their effectiveness, but for which research studying their effectiveness is underway. The effectiveness rating applies to the entire intervention and not to specific outcome domains.

A physical or mental condition—including some chronic illnesses—that substantially limit one or more major life activities (i.e., activities that most people can perform with little to no difficulty such as seeing, hearing, and learning). 

Diversion payments are one-time or short-term cash benefit payments that families receive to meet immediate needs, often (but not always) prior to enrollment in TANF or other assistance. These payments are designed to divert families from long-term enrollment in TANF or other services by addressing a specific crisis or episode of need. Diversion payments may be an intervention's primary service.

Services designed to provide assistance to people who have experienced domestic violence. These services may include crisis intervention; counseling; advocacy with medical, police, and court systems; or prevention trainings. Some domestic violence services may include other supports such as housing, which should be tagged when appropriate. Domestic violence services may be an intervention's primary service.

Earned income disregards or earned income disallowances allow participants who receive means-tested government benefits to accept jobs and increase their earnings without facing immediate penalty or reduction in their benefits amount received. Benefits may be reduced after a pre-determined time period, such as 6 or 12 months. Earned income disregards may be an intervention's primary service.

Programs designed to advance educational attainment or build occupational skills and experience needed to enter an occupational field. Education and Training may be an intervention's primary service.

A standardized measure of the magnitude of the impact of the intervention, or the difference in outcomes between the intervention group and the comparison group. The effect size is calculated by dividing the impact shown in the study by the standard deviation for that measure, which measures the diversity of the study sample. Here is an example of this calculation from the review of the Project QUEST intervention. The study of Project QUEST found an increase in long-term earnings of $3980 for the intervention group, as compared to the comparison group, and the standard deviation of earnings was $19,414, making the effect size .21 standard deviations ($3980/$19,414). The effect size serves as a standardized unit we can compare to other, similarly standardized units. By standardizing the magnitude of Project QUEST’s impact on long-term earnings as an effect size, we can compare the .21 effect size on long-term earnings to Project QUEST’s effect size on employment or to another intervention’s effect size on long-term earnings, even if that intervention was conducted in a different setting. Effect sizes facilitate comparisons across different outcomes, settings, and interventions. This helps us make direct and meaningful comparisons so users can compare, for example, an impact of 10 percent on employment with an impact of $1200 on earnings, as well as to the average of these two effects.

The assessment of the Pathways Clearinghouse, based on the existing evidence from impact studies, of the extent to which a given intervention improves a specific type of outcome. The effectiveness rating indicates whether the intervention is likely to produce favorable results if faithfully replicated with a similar population. After we review research on an intervention, we assign an effectiveness ratings to indicate how effective the intervention is at improving each of four types of outcomes: employment, earnings, public benefit receipt, and education and training. The ratings depend on (1) the quality of the impact study or studies conducted of the intervention and (2) the favorability (or lack thereof), statistical significance, and consistency of the study findings for that type of labor market outcome.

•   Well-supported. We have strong and consistent evidence that the intervention produces favorable results for a specific outcome domain, such as short-term earnings. These interventions have at least two impact studies of moderate or high quality that show evidence of favorable findings within the domain. However, because implementation challenges and successes often vary, and because no two implementations of an intervention are identical, Pathways Clearinghouse users should not view this rating as a guarantee of future success.
•   Supported. We have some evidence that the intervention improves outcomes. These ratings are domain specific, meaning that the intervention is considered supported only for the particular domains for which we have given this rating. These interventions have at least one study of moderate or high quality and show evidence of favorable findings in the domain, but the evidence is less conclusive than that for evidence-based interventions.
•   Not supported. We have the strongest evidence that the intervention is unlikely to produce substantial favorable results in a given outcome domain. Studies of these interventions have found only a pattern of null and/or unfavorable findings. We only consider impact studies of at least moderate quality in determining this rating.
•   Mixed support. We have some evidence, from impact studies of moderate or high quality, that indicates the intervention improves outcomes in a given outcome domain, and some evidence that indicates it worsens outcomes in that domain. For instance, in the educational attainment domain, an intervention might have unfavorable effects on attainment of a high school diploma, but favorable effects on GED attainment.
•   Insufficient evidence to assess support. We have some research, from impact studies of moderate or high quality, on the intervention’s effect in a given outcome domain. But we do not have a sufficient body of evidence to assign one of the other ratings.
•   No evidence to assess support. We did not find any studies that rated moderate or high that studied the intervention’s effect on outcomes in a given outcome domain. These interventions need further study to support conclusions about their effectiveness.

People who have a paid job from an employer or who are self-employed—either full-time or part-time.

Services provided at the place of employment or by the employer to participants while they are working to support employment retention and career goal achievement. Services include program staff working with employers to identify additional training needed for participants to achieve competency in assigned work tasks or helping participants access retention strategies offered by the employer, such as workplace mentoring or work-life balance services. Employer-focused retention strategies may be an intervention's primary service.

Ongoing collaborative assistance with setting and pursuing goals related to employment. Coaching typically is a participant-led process that involves identifying and addressing employment barriers, building motivation, and working towards self-defined employment goals. Employment coaching may be an intervention's primary service.

Services designed to support participants who already have a job. Employment Retention and Advancement Services may be an intervention's primary service.

Services to help participants make informed decisions about their financial resources, such as providing information on budgeting, saving, banking, wise use of credit, or loans. These services may also be referred to as financial literacy or financial training.  Financial education may be an intervention's primary service.

A finding summarizes the effect of an intervention on an outcome measure related to employment, earnings, public benefit receipt, education, or training. It is the smallest element we review and to which we give a study quality by finding rating. The direction of the finding might be favorable or unfavorable. We also categorize whether it is statistically significant (unlikely to have occurred by chance) and small or moderate-to-large.

• Favorable. An impact on an outcome or an overall outcome domain in a direction that is socially desirable. For example, a favorable impact could be an increase in annual earnings or consecutive months of employment, or a reduction in months of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) eligibility.
• Unfavorable. An impact on an outcome or an overall outcome domain in a direction that is not socially desirable. For example, an unfavorable impact could be a decrease in annual earnings or consecutive months of employment, or an increase in months of TANF eligibility.
• Moderate-to-large. We describe findings as being moderate-to-large if the intervention produced a sufficiently large change in the outcome. The change can be in a favorable or unfavorable direction. An impact receives this designation if the standardized effect size is equal to or greater than 0.25 or equal to or less than -0.25.
• Small. We describe findings as being small if the intervention did not produce a large change in the outcome. The change can be in a favorable or unfavorable direction. An impact receives this designation if the standardized effect size is between -0.25 and 0.25.

Services to support the physical, behavioral, or mental health of participants. Health-Related Services may be an intervention's primary service.

The quality of the study is high, meaning we can be fairly confident in the study findings. Strong evidence shows that the study finding is solely attributable to the intervention examined. This rating is reserved for study findings from high quality RCTs with low attrition of sample members.

The condition of lacking an adequate, fixed, and regular residence. This can include living in emergency shelters or transitional housing.

Services to help participants find, secure, and maintain safe housing, including housing search assistance and money or vouchers to cover rent and other housing costs. Housing search assistance and rental assistance payments may be provided by government or other entities, such as community-based organizations. Housing supports and subsidies may be an intervention's primary service.

Attainment of a degree or credential.

An increase in the amount earned through paid employment between 18 months and 5 years after the participant first received intervention services.

An increase in the rate of employment between 18 months and 5 years after the participant first received intervention services.

An increase in the amount earned through paid employment during a period 18 months or fewer after the participant first received intervention services.

An increase in the rate of employment during a period 18 months or fewer after the participant first received intervention services.

An increase in the amount earned through paid employment more than 5 years after the participant first received intervention services.

An increase in the rate of employment more than 5 years after the participant first received intervention services.

Occupational training designed in collaboration with employers and offered to existing employees to help with upskilling, reskilling, and retention during equipment or process changes. This training is designed to keep pace with industry changes and reduce costs associated with hiring new workers. May take place at work or at an off-site location, such as a training provider. Incumbent worker training may be an intervention's primary service.

We have some research, from impact studies of moderate or high quality, on the intervention’s effect in a given outcome domain. But we do not have a sufficient body of evidence to assign one of the other ratings.

Contextualized Adult Basic Education (ABE) and/or English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction that prepares learners to succeed in specific occupational training classes and contexts. Courses may be completed prior to enrollment in occupational skills training or may co-occur with that training. Integrated education and training may be an intervention's primary service.

A specific bundle of services or policies implemented in a given context. For the Pathways Clearinghouse, interventions are defined based on the services offered to the intervention group but not offered to the comparison group. Two studies examine the same intervention only if the same services were offered in both cases. We use the following definitions for the services and policies included in the interventions we review.

• Case management. Meeting, typically one-on-one, with an employment specialist or counselor who helps assess needs and refers clients to other available services. Case management can take place before or during employment and could focus on employment or on mental health or substance abuse.
• Financial incentives. Bonuses that clients receive for engaging in a specific activity or achieving a certain goal.
• Financial education. Education that help individuals make informed decisions about their financial resources, such as providing information on budgeting or loans.
• Health services. Services to support the mental or physical health of clients.
  • Substance use disorder treatment and mental health services. Services to treat clients for substance use disorder or mental health diagnoses.
  • Physical health services. Services to address clients’ physical health concerns.
• Employment retention services. Supplementary services provided when a client already has a job. These could include ongoing case management to address barriers or to assess progress toward career goals.
• Pre-employment services. Services designed to help job seekers find a job that are not related to education or training. These can include initial assessments to identify employment barriers, formalized assessments to identify skills and interests, help designing a resume and cover letter, job search assistance, or help developing an individual employment plan.
  • Coaching. Intensive assistance with identifying barriers and goals and helping clients address them. Also known as life coaching.
  • Job development or job placement. Assistance getting placed in a job. Typically, a client visits a career center and meets with a counselor who works with employers to identify or create a specific opening for the client.
• Sanctions. Reductions in payment for failing to comply with mandated services.
• Supportive services. Money or vouchers to fund child care, transportation (such as gas cards or tokens), or other supports to help clients search for work or engage in a training program.
• Training. Any training program.
  • Soft skills training. Training in so-called soft skills, such as punctuality, manners, professional dress, interactions with colleagues, or conflict management. Sometimes also called life skills training.
  • Occupational or sectoral training. Training that is tied to a particular occupation, such as truck driving or welding.
  • On-the-job training. An agreement between the workforce system and an employer in which the workforce system pays all or part of the wages for a client working for an approved employer in an approved occupation for a specified period. At the end of that time, the employer can hire the worker but without the wage subsidy.
  • Apprenticeships. An organized or structured form of learning on the job, typically in a skilled trade, but typically not subsidized.
• Work experience. Paid or unpaid (such as internships) work experience.
  • Unpaid work experience. Work experience that is voluntary or unpaid, such as an unpaid internship.
  • Subsidized employment. Employment that is partially or fully paid for by an external funder (not the employer).
  • Transitional jobs. Jobs that are meant to integrate those who have been out of the workforce (for example, former prisoners) into the community. They can be paid or unpaid.

Activities related to program staff working with employers to identify existing or prospective job openings. Staff may work with employers to modify job postings to more closely align with needed or required skills, contact employers to probe about desired employee traits, call or visit employers to inquire about the status of current openings, or prime employers to accept applications from participants. Job development may be an intervention's primary service.

Activities to connect participants to employer job openings. This can include meeting with employers to identify appropriate positions that match program participants' skills and routing qualified program participants to these employers' job openings. Job placement may be an intervention's primary service.

Services designed to help prepare participants for job search and prospective employment, including assessments to identify employment barriers, assessments of skills and career interests, and developing an individual employment plan or employment goals. Job readiness may be an intervention's primary service.

Activities that help participants prepare for, search for, and be placed in jobs. Activities can involve both program participants and employers. Job Readiness and Placement Activities may be an intervention's primary service.

Assistance helping participants identify potential sectors, occupations, employers, and jobs. Includes helping participants prepare applications, resumes, and cover letters; prepare for interviews; and debriefing after an interview or rejection of an application. Job search assistance may be an intervention's primary service.

Contact with the justice system, including the condition of being in or having been in prison, jail, or a youth correctional facility; awaiting trial; or being on probation, parole, or supervised release. 

Free or low-cost services to help address legal barriers to employment, including those related to past or current justice-system involvement. Legal assistance may be an intervention's primary service.

People who did not complete high school or pass a high school equivalency exam.

For this review, a period lasting between 18 months and 5 years after participants are first offered services.

The quality of the study is low, meaning we cannot have much confidence in the study findings. Other important factors could have influenced the study findings, and the study did not account for them. Study findings that do not meet the high or moderate ratings criteria receive the low rating.

A single piece of published or unpublished research, such as a journal article, working paper, book chapter, or research report. Studies might contain multiple manuscripts, and manuscripts might contain multiple studies. See the Protocol for the Pathways to Work Evidence Clearinghouse for more information.

A condition or conditions that affect a person’s thoughts, feelings, mood, or behaviors. Mental health conditions that may be considered employment barriers include depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, or personality disorders.

Inpatient or outpatient services to support or treat participants for mental health diagnoses. Services may include referrals for assessment, medication, counseling, or residential treatment. Mental health services may be an intervention's primary service.

A person who served on active duty in the U.S. armed forces and was discharged or released under a condition other than "dishonorable."

We have some evidence, from impact studies of moderate or high quality, that indicates the intervention improves outcomes in a given outcome domain, and some evidence that indicates it worsens outcomes in that domain. For instance, in the educational attainment domain, an intervention might have unfavorable effects on attainment of a high school diploma, but favorable effects on GED attainment.

A model refers to a clearly defined and recognized bundle of services and policies or framework for service delivery. A model may be adapted when implemented in a specific context. For the Pathways Clearinghouse, some interventions are specific versions of more general models.

The quality of the study is moderate, meaning we can be somewhat confident in the study findings. However, other factors not accounted for in the study might also have contributed to the findings. This applies to findings from random assignment studies that, because of flaws in the study design or analysis (for example, high sample attrition), do not meet the criteria for the high rating but satisfy other design criteria. We also assign the moderate rating to study findings from well-executed QEDs.

We did not find any studies that rated moderate or high that studied the intervention’s effect on outcomes in a given outcome domain. These interventions need further study to support conclusions about their effectiveness.

A parent who does not have primary care, custody, or control of their child, and who may have an obligation to pay child support.

We have the strongest evidence that the intervention is unlikely to produce substantial favorable results in a given outcome domain. Studies of these interventions have found only a pattern of null and/or unfavorable findings. We only consider impact studies of at least moderate quality in determining this rating.

Training associated with the development of skills needed in a particular occupation, industry, or sector. May culminate in receipt of an industry-recognized certificate, licensure, or credential. Occupational or sectoral training may be an intervention's primary service.

People who are ages 50 or older.

A form of occupational training in which pre-determined occupational skills are learned while working on the job. This typically involves an agreement between a provider and an employer that subsidizes all or part of the participant’s wages. Participants work for an approved employer in an approved occupation to learn specific skills over a set period of time. Employers may choose to hire the participant without the wage subsidy at the end of their training. On-the-job training may be an intervention's primary service.

A group of related outcomes. The Pathways Clearinghouse includes seven outcome domains: short-term earnings, long-term earnings, short-term employment, long-term employment, short-term public benefit receipt (such as TANF, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, and so on), long-term public benefit receipt, and education and training (which focuses on attaining a degree or credential).

The probability that if there actually was no real effect of the intervention, a finding at least as large as the observed finding would have been obtained by chance. For example, a sample might show a positive average difference, suggesting that the intervention group has better outcomes than the comparison group, with a p-value of 0.05. The p-value means that there is a 5 percent chance that the positive finding for the intervention group occurred by chance and does not occur in the population.

Short-term, paid work experience designed by employers to orient participants to occupations within an industry, receive mentorship, and gain exposure to workplace culture. Internships may vary in length and are sometimes associated with young adults but are provided to other populations as well. Wages are paid by the employer. Paid work experience/internships may be an intervention's primary service.

Strategies that allow participants or former participants to give and receive help from one another. These strategies often connect participants with similar challenges to provide support in a non-clinical, non-hierarchical relationship. Peer mentoring may be an intervention's primary service.

Payments that participants receive for engaging in a specific activity or achieving a certain goal. These payments may also be used to incentivize continued program participation. Performance- or behavior-based financial incentives may be an intervention's primary service.

Personalized assistance provided by a staff person—such as a case manager, counselor, coach, navigator, or employment specialist—or another program participant who helps assess needs, refers or directly provides services to participants, and helps participants remain in compliance with program requirements (if appropriate). Although assistance is typically delivered one-on-one, it can be delivered in group settings as well. Personalized Assistance may be an intervention's primary service.

Services to support the physical health of participants. Services may include referrals to medical providers, community clinics, or medical debt relief programs or benefits. Physical health services may be an intervention’s primary service.

Ongoing support provided directly to participants by program staff after a participant is employed to help them navigate issues or difficulties arising at work, manage barriers to their continued success, assess progress towards goals, or monitor job attendance. Post-employment participant follow-up may be an intervention's primary service.

Training designed to prepare participants to enter registered apprenticeship programs. Pre-apprenticeship training may be an intervention's primary service.

An intervention’s primary service is the principal service of the intervention. The primary service is (1) a component that a large proportion of intervention group members received and a large proportion of comparison group members did not and (2) the component that was described by the study authors as most integral to the theory of change tested by the study. Interventions may provide multiple services, but only one service is designated as primary.

People served by government programs that provide financial support and services to people with low incomes. These programs include Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), Medicaid, and subsidized or public housing.

A design in which the intervention and comparison groups are created through a process that is not random. For a QED to be rigorous, the intervention and comparison groups must have been comparable on predetermined characteristics at the start of the study. At best, strong QEDs will receive a moderate rating in the Pathways Clearinghouse.

The Pathways Clearinghouse follows federal standards for classifying data on race and ethnicity. Reflecting evolving public conceptions of race and ethnicity, federal standards for classifying data on race and ethnicity changed broadly around 2000. Major changes included measuring ethnicity separately from race and revising definitions of some categories. If a study reports race and ethnicity using definitions that differ from the federal standards, we choose the Pathways Clearinghouse classification that best matches the study classification.

• American Indian or Alaska Native (not Hispanic). A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North or South America (including Central America), and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment. When possible, this classification refers to people who do not identify with Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. However, Pathways Clearinghouse might include people who also identify as Hispanic or Latino within this classification in profiles of some older research.
• Asian (not Hispanic). A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent, including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. When possible, this classification refers to people who do not identify with Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. However, Pathways Clearinghouse might include people who also identify as Hispanic or Latino within this classification in profiles of some older research.
• Black or African American (not Hispanic). A person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa. When possible, this classification refers to people who do not identify with Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. However, Pathways Clearinghouse might include people who also identify as Hispanic or Latino within this classification in profiles of some older research.
• Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (not Hispanic). A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands. This classification is not associated with Hispanic or Latino ethnicity.
• Pacific Islander. A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands. This term was replaced in the revised guidance for federal classification of race and ethnicity in 2000, but it is included in Pathways Clearinghouse because it was used in some older studies. Pathways might include people who also identify as Hispanic or Latino within this classification.
• White, not Hispanic. A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. This classification is not associated with Hispanic or Latino ethnicity.
• White. A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. This term was replaced in the revised guidance for federal classification of race and ethnicity in 2000, but it is included in Pathways Clearinghouse because it was used in some older studies. Pathways might include people who also identify as Hispanic or Latino within this classification.
• More than one race (not Hispanic). A person who indicated more than one race category. This classification is not associated with a Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. However, Pathways Clearinghouse might include people who also identify as Hispanic or Latino within this classification in profiles of some older research.
• Unknown or not reported. A person whose race is not known either because they skipped questions related to race or ethnicity during study data collection or because the study author did not collect or did not report on race and ethnicity for some or all of the study sample. Authors sometimes make the decision not to report race or ethnicity because of confidentiality concerns in cases where only a few members of a study sample identify as members of a particular category. For some older studies, Pathways Clearinghouse aggregates this category with the “another race” category.
• Another race. A person who indicated a race category other than those reported by the Pathways Clearinghouse. In some cases, a study’s data collection might have included an “other” category. In other cases, study authors might have reported on a race category that did not fall into one of the Pathways Clearinghouse categories. Both scenarios would place persons into this category for race. For some older studies, Pathways Clearinghouse aggregates this category with the “unknown or not reported” category.
• Hispanic or Latino of any race. A person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race.

A design in which researchers randomly assign study participants to a group that receives the intervention services or a group that does not. RCTs are considered to produce the strongest possible evidence of effectiveness because random assignment ensures that no systematic differences existed between the study groups before the intervention.

Pathways describes studies as having been conducted in rural only settings if the study authors reported that the study was conducted in a rural location or in multiple locations, all of which were rural. This typically means that they were conducted in communities with low population density, such as small towns, that typically include large tracts of undeveloped land. Interventions are listed as having been tested in rural only settings if at least one study of the intervention was in a rural only setting.

For this review, a period lasting 18 months or fewer after participants are first offered services.

A parent raising a child or children without a spouse or partner in the household.

Training in skills such as punctuality, professional communications and conduct, professional dress, and conflict management. Soft skills training may be an intervention's primary service.

Pathways considers statistical significance to be support for the existence of an effect of an intervention. Pathways considers an effect estimate statistically significant if the p-value of a two-sided hypothesis test of whether the effect is equal to zero is less than 0.05.  A p-value is the probability of observing an effect estimate as large or larger than the one observed, if there were no actual effect.

Financial support for time commitments associated with program activities to enable continued participation (e.g., support to accommodate reduced work hours or increased childcare hours due to training programs or meetings with program staff). Stipends may be an intervention's primary service.

An analysis of a distinct implementation of an intervention.

Studies vary in terms of their quality, or rigor. This variability in quality can result either from the way a study was designed or the way it was executed. Study quality affects the confidence we can have in the study’s findings. Three possible ratings—high, moderate, and low—describe our confidence that a given study’s finding is because of the intervention. We assign the study quality rating based on our assessment of its quality. For studies that include multiple findings, we might assess study quality for each finding. The study quality rating is the highest rating assigned to any of the findings. In the Pathways Clearinghouse, study quality ratings only apply to randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental design studies.

• High. The quality of the study is high, meaning we can be fairly confident in the study findings. Strong evidence shows that the study finding is solely attributable to the intervention examined. This rating is reserved for study findings from high quality RCTs with low attrition of sample members.
• Moderate. The quality of the study is moderate, meaning we can be somewhat confident in the study findings. However, other factors not accounted for in the study might also have contributed to the findings. This applies to findings from random assignment studies that, because of flaws in the study design or analysis (for example, high sample attrition), do not meet the criteria for the high rating but satisfy other design criteria. We also assign the moderate rating to study findings from well-executed QEDs.
• Low. The quality of the study is low, meaning we cannot have much confidence in the study findings. Other important factors could have influenced the study findings, and the study did not account for them. Study findings that do not meet the high or moderate ratings criteria receive the low rating.

Overall, a study receives the highest study quality rating of any finding in that study. More information about study quality ratings is available in the Protocol for the Pathways to Work Evidence Clearinghouse.

A subset of individuals examined in a study who share a particular characteristic (for example, single parents or women).

Temporary or short-term employment in which a worker’s wages are partially or fully paid for by an external funder (not the employer). Those engaged in subsidized employment or transitional jobs may have little to no recent work experience or history and may use the subsidized experience to learn basic employment skills. Employers may choose to hire workers at the end of their subsidized employment. Subsidized employment/transitional jobs may be an intervention's primary service.

A condition that affects a person's ability to control the use of substances such as legal or illegal drugs, alcohol, or medications despite their harmful consequences.

Pathways describes studies as having been conducted in suburban only settings if the study authors reported that the study was conducted in a suburban location or in multiple locations, all of which were suburban. This typically means that they were conducted in communities with moderate population density, such as large towns or neighborhoods outside of cities, where residential areas are typically separate from commercial areas. Interventions are listed as having been tested in suburban only settings if at least one study of the intervention was in a suburban only setting.

SNAP, the largest of the domestic nutrition assistance programs administered by the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), provides food assistance to individuals and households in need. The assistance is provided through electronic benefit cards participants can use to purchase food. Most individuals whose income and resources fall below certain federally-determined thresholds, are eligible for SNAP.

We have some evidence that the intervention improves outcomes. These ratings are domain specific, meaning that the intervention is considered supported only for the particular domains for which we have given this rating. These interventions have at least one study of moderate or high quality and show evidence of favorable findings in the domain, but the evidence is less conclusive than that for well-supported interventions.

In-kind assistance often provided to address participants’ barriers to employment or program participation. Supportive services may be an intervention's primary service.

TANF provides federal grant funds to states to provide families with children (including pregnant women) or individual children whose incomes falls below a certain threshold with time-limited financial assistance and related supports, such as childcare assistance and job preparation services. Each state determines the type and amount of assistance, other supports, and eligibility requirements. TANF replaced Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) in 1996. Unlike AFDC, TANF requires adults who are able to work to participate in work or training activities and limits families with adult recipients to no more than five years of benefits.

Pathways describes studies as having been conducted in multiple settings if the study authors do not describe the study as having been conducted in communities that were exclusively rural, exclusively suburban, or exclusively urban. In other words, when study authors do not specify the study as having been implemented in a specific type of setting, then Pathways classifies the study as tested in multiple settings. For example, an intervention may be tested across multiple counties or an entire state, which include different types of communities. Interventions are listed as having been tested in multiple settings if at least one study of the intervention is characterized that way.

WIC provides federal grants to states for supplemental foods, health care referrals, and nutrition education for pregnant, breastfeeding, and non-breastfeeding postpartum women, and to infants and children up to age five determined to be at "nutritional risk" by a health professional. To be eligible, applicants' gross income must fall at or below 185 percent of the U.S. Poverty Income Guidelines, though states may set lower income eligibility limits.

Cash or like-cash financial assistance with transportation costs to work, school, training, or program activities. May include gas cards, public transportation cards, tokens, parking vouchers, or credits or reimbursement for ride-sharing services. Transportation assistance may be an intervention's primary service.

Inpatient or outpatient services to treat substance use disorder and/or provide supports for recovery. Services may include referrals to medication assisted treatment, counseling, peer recovery coaching, and residential treatment. Treatment or recovery services for substance use disorder may be an intervention's primary service.

Financial contributions or assistance towards the costs of attending education or training courses.  Can be provided in advance or reimbursed after courses have been completed. Tuition assistance/financial aid may be an intervention's primary service.

Monetary support that provides a pre-established payment, usually in the form of cash, with no conditions for receiving the payment and no expectations attached for how the money is to be used. Unconditional cash transfers may be an intervention's primary service.

People who do not have a paid job and who are either actively seeking employment or not in the labor force. 

Work that is unpaid, such as community service jobs. May be used for participants who have limited to no work history. Often short-term, these placements are typically designed to orient participants to entry-level occupations and to provide exposure to workplace culture. Unpaid work experience/internships may be an intervention's primary service.

Pathways describes studies as having been conducted in urban only settings if the study authors reported that the study was conducted in an urban location or in multiple locations, all of which were urban. This typically means that they were conducted in cities or adjacent areas with high population density and where residential and commercial buildings are adjacent to one another. Interventions are listed as having been tested in urban only settings if at least one study of the intervention was in an urban only setting.

For this review, a period lasting five years or more after participants are first offered services.

We have strong and consistent evidence that the intervention produces favorable results for a specific outcome domain, such as short-term earnings. These interventions have at least two impact studies of moderate or high quality that show evidence of favorable findings within the domain. However, because implementation challenges and successes often vary, and because no two implementations of an intervention are identical, Pathways Clearinghouse users should not view this rating as a guarantee of future success.

Paid or unpaid work or learning experiences that occur in a work setting. Work and Work-Based Approaches may be an intervention's primary service.

In-kind supports needed for program participants to participate in training or work. These supports can include—but are not limited to—uniforms, laptops, tools, and other equipment. Work supports may be an intervention's primary service.

People who are ages 16 to 24.